EDITORS POLITELY POLAND, 2021
Summary
The practice of counseling in the development of the organizational role can take place independently and transversely to traditional classroom training courses. In fact, when we talk about role identity in organizations, we refer to learning that implies knowing how to be connected to personal identity. In this sense, role consultation is configured as a borderline activity between behavioral consultancy and organizational consultancy.
For organizations, role counseling can represent the possibility of highlighting the need for change through the motivational path rather than the normative one.
Since career is something that takes place over the course of a person’s life, we can bring this type of role counseling closer to lifelong learning; a Life Long Learning.
Professional development therefore comes as the ability to build a strategy of dialogue with changing external conditions. Career is a construct that serves to provide a framework for organizing the complex patterns of social interaction for the expression of professional identity throughout the entire life span. Finally, we describe the three main skills for a counselor interested in long-term learning.
Key words: Counselling, Organizational counselling, life long learning, counsellor skills.
Streszczenie
Praktyka doradztwa w rozwoju roli organizacyjnej może odbywać się niezależnie i w poprzek tradycyjnych szkoleń stacjonarnych. Wrzeczywistości, kiedy mówimy o tożsamości ról w organizacjach, odnosimy się do uczenia się, które implikuje umiejętność łączenia się z tożsamością osobistą. Wtym sensie konsultacje ról są skonfigurowane jako działanie z pogranicza doradztwa behawioralnego i doradztwa organizacyjnego.
Wprzypadku organizacji poradnictwo dotyczące ról może reprezentować możliwość podkreślenia potrzeby zmiany poprzez ścieżkę motywacyjną, a nie normatywną.
Ponieważ kariera to coś, co dzieje się w ciągu życia danej osoby, możemy zbliżyć ten rodzaj poradnictwa zawodowego do uczenia się przez całe życie; do uczenia się przez całe życie.
Rozwój zawodowy to zatem umiejętność budowania strategii dialogu ze zmieniającymi się warunkami zewnętrznymi. Kariera jest konstrukcją, która służy do zapewnienia ram do organizowania złożonych wzorców interakcji społecznych w celu wyrażania tożsamości zawodowej przez całe życie. Na koniec opisujemy trzy główne umiejętności doradcy zainteresowanego uczeniem się długoterminowym.
Słowa kluczowe: Poradnictwo, Poradnictwo organizacyjne, kształcenie ustawiczne, umiejętności doradcy.
Introduction
The rebirth of interest in training research can be traced principally to three influential papers appearing between 1985 and 1990 (Baldwin & Ford, 1988; Howell & Cooke, 1989; Noe, 1986). The first of these was by Noe, who proposed and later tested (Noe & Schmitt, 1986) a model of training effectiveness. Noe’s fundamental thesis was that training success was determined not only by the quality of training (or the effectiveness of a specific method), but by interpersonal, social, and structural characteristics reflecting the relationship of the trainee and the training program to the broader organizational context. Variables such as organizational support or an individual’s readiness for training could augment or negate the direct impact of the training itself. Noe’s original model has been refined several times, both by other authors (Cannon-Bowers, Salas, Tannenbaum, & Mathieu, 1995) and by Noe and his col- leagues (Colquitt et al., 2000); an updated training effective- ness model is reproduced by them.
The operational philosophy of counselling and in particular with regard to its organizational integration with development techniques allows us to highlight an important link between counselling and learning, since organizational development techniques are based on the premise of producing behavioral changes through learning (Biggio, 2014). On the other hand, the paradigm of change / learning unites both the pedagogical soul of traditional counselling and the philosophy of corporate “education”. If one of the clearest connotations of counselling is to stimulate the learning of new behavioral patterns, we can interpret a part of the counselling process as a technique for teaching to learn or actively re-learn from experience Herr (1989).
It is interesting to observe how active learning from experience is a common feature of the set of supports for the development of people Aubrey (1997), “Historical development of guidance and counselling and implication for the future”, in Personnel and Guidance Journal, 55, pp. 288-295.
‘Helping’ rather than teaching is part of this approach: formative learning through experience must, by its very nature, be self-directed and based on “the autonomous exercise of intelligence, choice and interest”.
The professional of this type of training is therefore more a facilitator than a teacher and, as such, works to ensure that the participant / client progresses towards greater autonomy, both in the learning process and in the exercise of the organizational and managerial role
The emphasis on making sense of experience is consistent with Dewey’s (1917) pedagogy according to which experiential learning is effective only if it can be converted into “secondary experience” by means of reflection and contextualising theory. Dewey’s vision is also endorsed by Rogersian counselling, which, moreover, had absorbed the pedagogical influence of this author in its initial elaboration.
‘Counselling in the business environment is confronted with the numerous and emerging management trends based on individual development; the facilitation of interpersonal and group relationships, the theme of communication and active feedback, “behavioral interpersonal skills”, experiential training aimed at organizational behavior, attention to new leadership models, the theme of “empowerment”, process management through individual ownership, management by skills and personal energies, individual assessment and action plans, role consultancy within organizational development.
Counselling is practiced in many organizations as a permanent discipline of individual development and in this sense could be considered a lifelong pedagogy.
Counseling is a relational help activity carried out by experts who make professional skills available to individuals and organizations. The English term counseling comes from the Latin verb consulere which means “to ask for advice, to deliberate”. The word consilium also derives from the root of consulere, which is translated as: “opinion, judgment given to a person to resolve his doubts or to urge him to do or not do something”. In the Italian language, finally, we have a set of derivations of the verb consulere which includes consult, consultant, consultancy, consultancy and more. All these terms contain at least three common functional meanings: a condition for requesting an opinion to obtain an improvement, the existence of recognized knowledge to turn to, a focus on the question / answer communication process.
Carrying out a counseling activity means managing, by a counselor, a question / answer process based on an individual and / or organizational expectation for improvement. This practice is now recognized in many countries and appears as a widespread and heterogeneous discipline. For a first orientation, it may be useful to have an overall picture of the counseling, through some significant definitions.
– Feltham and Dryden (1993), authors of the “Dictionary of Counseling”, a text that has had historical recognition in the Anglo-Saxon world, affirm that counseling is a help activity in a broad sense, based on diversified clinical and theoretical contributions.
– Walton (1997), an author who has dealt with counseling in the workplace, sees this as an opportunity for growth, which starts from research and revision of the present situation to arrive at the creation of a potential change. There are also two possible levels of relationship in counseling; support for individuals (downstream) in which the relationship is focused on the customer, and the search for the root causes of organizational malaise (upstream), in which the relationship is centered on the organizational system.
– Locke, Myers and Herr (2001), authors of one of the largest counseling manuals in the United States, argue that counseling has a unique position within the helping professions. It offers a combination, an amalgam, of dynamic and evolutionary responses to the needs of individuals and society.
– Feltham and Horton (2006) affirm that counseling is mainly, but not exclusively, a method of listening and dialogue aimed at favoring a change of the person towards a potential development naturally inscribed in human evolutionary needs.
– Brown and Lent, (2008) affirm that counseling is a form of psychological and / or relational counseling to support the person, with precise historical roots and heterogeneous application methods. This practice is configured as a helping relationship aimed at the person so that she can recognize, enhance and apply her own resources in terms of environmental adaptation.
– McLeod (2010), an author expert in both psychotherapy and counseling, integrates different levels of observation. He sees counseling as a one-to-one psychological commitment between a counselor and a client. His mandate can involve personal and interpersonal training, throughout the span of life, with particular attention to issues relating to psychophysical well-being, social and professional problems, development and organizational problems. People are helped to improve their well-being, relieve discomfort and maladjustment, and live a more functional life.
All these definitions underline that counseling, despite the heterogeneity of approaches and applications, is essentially a helping activity that is created through an interaction between a counselor and a client. It is a professional relationship that has as its objective the development of the person in his social interaction. For this reason, counseling is considered capable of promoting the improvement of individual and, at the same time, organizational well-being.
It must be said that this activity appears, especially in the definitions, at times not very codifiable. Its roots are, as we will see, in pedagogy and in the facilitation of individual learning between adaptation and identity. Within the organizations, in particular, counseling has been introduced with a methodological framework, including training; this has underlined even more the differentiation between counseling and psychotherapy, despite the common belonging to the area of help practices. Within organizations, the application emphasis is on the development and not on the cure, on the promotion of conditions of “well-being” of the individual in his organizational and social relationships, and not so much on the healing of a “malaise”.
This contribution aims to provide an idea of what counseling is and how it can be integrated into training. The chapter is divided into four parts; the first paragraph describes the identity connotations of counseling reconstructed through its history, the second is dedicated to the relationship between counseling and the training context, the third will concern the applications of counseling (planning, design, duration, etc.) while the fourth and last paragraph will put focus on the counselor’s “training action” in terms of skills, processes and objectives.
“Helping to learn”, rather than transmitting, is a shared principle of both counselling and experiential training. Formative learning as a facilitation must, by its nature, be self-directed and based “on the autonomous exercise of intelligence and interest” (Folgheraiter, Heron, 1989). The considerations inherent to active training and the facilitation function meet the issues of the Learning Organization and the new educator figures connected to it (Cortese, Quaglino, 1999).
Current organizations need the dynamic individual-group-organization field to be crossed interactively by continuous learning. According to the authors, the progressive affirmation of this paradigm poses various training implications: “the transition from a focus on the teacher to a focus on the participant, the identification of training opportunities outside the classroom and the activation of a meaningful reflection on the experience as a privileged way of acquiring ‘tacit’ knowledge.
The action of the professional, in training as in counselling, works to ensure that the participant / client progresses towards greater autonomy both in the learning process and in the exercise of the organizational role. Precisely through the individual relationship, counselling can be considered a very useful tool for an emotional-cognitive enhancement of learning. It can be configured in a training beyond the classroom, not only individual, but individualized in the sense of a highly personalized cognitive-emotional contextualization of operational behaviors. Although counselling is a psychological intervention, it has a problem common to one-to-one training as previously underlined.
In particular, organizational forms can be identified in which counselling is a specific tool that can be used for training purposes:
– training-related counselling;
– counselling in the development of the organizational role
– counselling to the person.
2.1 Training-related counselling
The counselling linked to training, as an individual support tool, is practiced in two ways: accompanying the training in the classroom during its development,
individual continuation of the topics covered in the training group.
In the first case we have a work situation in parallel between training and counselling aimed at encouraging tutoring of the individual skills put in place to achieve the training objectives. This situation often occurs in a particular active training which we call Action Learning (Quaglino, 1986).
It is a training-learning that arises from the analysis of the skills to be developed to implement the project defined in the training organizationally.
For this reason, this form of counselling can also be part of other training processes aimed at acquiring real socio-operational skills such as professional training. Consider, for example, what happens in the supervision of the internship for nursing paths, the supervision carried out by a senior member in psychotherapeutic specialization training or various helping professions.
Counselling can offer in these cases a learning supervision comparable to that of Tutoring; but counselling, however, can add particular attention to the psychological characteristics of the person in learning and to the person’s affective modalities in symbolizing certain abilities (for example empathy and listening in the helping professions, the balance in interfering on other people’s issues in the coordination roles, the search for integrity in the evaluation, the enthusiasm in the company start uppers, etc.).
In the learning process and in the exercise of the organizational role. Precisely through the individual relationship, counselling can be considered a very useful tool for an emotional-cognitive enhancement of learning. It can be configured in a training beyond the classroom, not only individual, but individualized in the sense of a highly personalized cognitive-emotional contextualization of operational behaviors. Although counselling is a psychological intervention, it has a problem common to one-to-one training as previously underlined.
of the organizational role;
The practice of counselling in the development of the organizational role can take place independently and transversely to traditional classroom training courses. Role counselling is a form of applied counselling, developed for years in the Italian Psycho-socio-analytic school (Forti, Patruno, 2007). In fact, when we talk about role identity in organizations, we refer to learning that implies knowing how to be connected to personal identity. In this sense, role consultation is configured as a borderline activity between behavioral consultancy and organizational consultancy.
For organizations, role counselling can represent the possibility of highlighting the need for change through the motivational path rather than the normative one.
It represents a new field of research by concretely analyzing the issues of the organizational role. In this case the counselor has the opportunity to explore some areas of the abilities that are
– leadership
– the negative ability to manage uncertainty
– the ability to self-analyze
– self-motivation,
– interpersonal communication,
– the ability to read psychosocial dynamics,
– the systemic understanding of what is defined as emotional intelligence.
The mutation of the traditional concept of career has generated new approaches to counselling, among these precisely, counselling the role. Since career is something that takes place over the course of a person’s life, we can bring this type of role counselling closer to lifelong learning; a Life Long Learning.
Professional development therefore comes as the ability to build a strategy of dialogue with changing external conditions. Career is a construct that serves to provide a framework for organizing the complex patterns of social interaction for the expression of professional identity throughout the entire life span. Recent approaches offer a new vision of the construction of professional identity. This is no longer seen as a result of adapting to rules but rather in its “ability to pursue a reflective progress for which the individual feels responsible … It is necessary to form a development trajectory from the past towards an anticipated future” (Giddens, 1991, pp. 75-77).
Organizational counselling will have to deal with the issues of professional identity at a theoretical and application level by working in the operational horizon of the organizational role in synergy with training development.
2.3 Counselling to the person
Individual counselling interventions in an organizational context can be an autonomous activity, useful for supporting the person in organizational steps with a high emotional and cognitive intensity.
The stress deriving from dealing with interpersonal relationships permeated by uncertainty and facing ambiguous work tasks or “puzzles” is increasingly widespread in today’s organizations. The capacity for self-motivation or Self Empowerment must also be possessed by the requesting organization if the individual is intensely exposed to some environmental ambiguities.
At the same time, the organizational culture must be understood and supported by those who absorb its complexity, especially by those with managerial functions.
Examples of this situation are structures that provide complex services (such as therapeutic rehabilitation communities) which require permanent organizational supervision for operators exposed to relational toxicity, and often personalized counselling aimed at the leader or the managers of the structures themselves.
Other cases that arise relate to managers who have to manage downsizing processes with strong exposure to negative relationships on the part of colleagues. In a recently reported organizational case (Giangiacomo 2012), counselling is described aimed at supporting a CEO in managing the organizational culture, following a more complex company merger.
Often, as in the case mentioned, individual intervention is connected to the tuning between individual identity and change in organizational culture, which can be considered as an individual declination of the organizational development of Change management interventions and as a Life Long Learning support during the entire stay of the person inside the organization.
3. The three main competences for the counsellor
The first competency, managing self, “is the ability to take responsibility for one’s own performance, including the awareness, development, and application of one’s own skills and competencies” The skill set for this competency includes “gaining knowledge from everyday experiences” and “keeping up-to-date on developments in the field”. Other skills are managing multiple tasks, setting priorities, time management, dealing with daily work situations, and identifying, prioritizing, and solving problems. In order to improve these skills, one suggestion is to design courses and curriculum based on specific and generic knowledge. Students can then build their portfolios based on their own course choices. Another suggestion is to have students summarize and synthesize the information from a course and present this to primary school children. In order to foster skill development, “the organization must not require them [new employees] to engage in unimportant, noncontributing tasks”. This seems a naïve suggestion. Work may seem unimportant simply because the worker cannot see how the task supports the organization’s goals. The authors go on to suggest “training sessions that provide useful tools and information, provide opportunities for networking, and encourage stress-releasing activities that diffuse the need to blow up at colleagues”. Such sessions should replace meetings and training sessions that only fill time. The authors seem to assume that meetings are unproductive and that no learning occurs during them.
The second competency, communicating, is defined as “interacting effectively with a variety of individuals and groups to facilitate the gathering, integrating, and conveying of information in many forms”. Suggestions to improve this skill include changing evaluation criteria to include oral and written presentations, active listening, and interpersonal relations with team members. Performance evaluations should be conducted by both the instructor and the team members. Organizations can foster communication skills by communicating their purpose and goals consistently and establishing different channels to disseminate information by its degree of importance. Individual communication skills would be improved if feedback is provided to workers after they communicate information. This puts a lot of the responsibility for individual improvement on the organization. Other authors, like Kouzes and Posner (Abu-Tine et al., 2009), suggest taking courses to improve communication skills, critiquing one’s own writing, and speaking positively, putting the responsibility for improvement on the individual. The third competency, managing people and tasks, “is the process of ensuring that work that needs to get done actually gets done, and by the appropriate people, and then measuring and evaluating outcomes against prescribed objectives”. The authors suggest that this skill can be taught in higher education by analyzing case studies across the curriculum. Students who fail a test or course should be allowed an opportunity to learn from their mistakes. Organizations should employ a career development program with two components: mentoring and horizontal movement throughout the organization’s departments.
The final competency, mobilizing innovation and change, is to champion a new idea for change or innovation through organizational channels. Higher education can reward thinking that moves away from the norm and sponsor assignments that encourage informed risk. Organizations can foster this skill with “proper organizational climate and nurturing”.
Relational skills are a necessary complement for carrying out the counseling activity, as confirmed by the high number of publications dedicated to counselor skills. A part of university training is also dedicated to the topic of counselor skills
The organization of counseling in the training takes into account the organizational key points. We foresee an oscillation of the counselor along a line that goes from a predominantly implementation focus towards a focus linked to the professional identity and performative quality of the person. In the first there is what Carroll (1996) defines as attention to performance while in the second axis, attention to development prevails. The first option favors the focus on specific issues, albeit in the non-directivity that characterizes the counseling process. The second favors the expansion of the person’s self-reflective horizon. Both options are part of active training, with the task of encouraging a cycle of reflection / action tailored to the individual. We can integrate training action learning with training action on learning, or in a reflective action on the way we learn; this in order to broaden the cognitive / emotional field in which we place the constituent elements of the experience.
Having declined the topic of counseling within a training context, we can ask ourselves what are the relational skills that support the training action.
Relational skills were one of the themes to which Rogers (1942) applied in the initial phase of his model. He stressed the importance of assuming a non-directive and facilitating attitude in the relationship, of knowing how to respond to feelings rather than rational contents, knowing how to accept any type of expression from the client. Rogers also described the basic aspects of the relational setting of counseling which include;
These skills have interesting links with the topic of supervision in the clinical setting, an activity that was previously described in terms of individual training. In clinical supervision the supervisor must carry out a double reflection with his client (therapist); the first on “operational behaviors” and the second on the awareness of the relationship between the emotional and cognitive structure and the operational behaviors themselves. The quality of the relationship between supervisor and supervisee is a clinical quality since the supervisor has the skills to observe and make the supervisee observe their internal cognitive emotional assets but, at the same time, the purpose of supervision, as in counseling, is to carry out a training, to carry out a verification and training transmission.
In the training action, the counselor must act by adequately exercising some governance skills of a relational setting, that is;
1. Non-verbal behaviors. They range from the choice of furniture and location of the meeting place for gestures, which must express empathy, openness, spontaneity.
2. Observation skills. It is the clinical ability to see the indicative signs, expression of the person and her behavioral orientations.
3. Listening skills. Some have spoken of “active listening” to describe the ability to be actively available to receive the information the customer wants transmit.
4. Ability to respond. Responsiveness is associated with behaviors inable to facilitate communication: minimal encouragement, reflections on thoughts feelings, questions for clarification.
5. Ability to return. In counseling this ability is not so much about telling the client what has been understood about him but to make explicit, through unsaturated statements and questions, the potential understanding of himself that the client is maturing in the counseling process.
Ivey (1999) also stated that the counselor’s basic skills must be channeled into relational processes that are activated within each counseling session. The three main sub-processes (table) that make up the heart of counseling are:
A- Confrontation
That is, carrying out a mirroring function or mirroring of the customer’s characteristics in order to transmit, on an analog level, the perception of having understood what the customer feels in relation to their working experiences. The restitution must take place in a maieutic way through the understanding of the client and not through the clarification of the counselor. Furthermore, it must be implicitly positive, helping the client to see the opportunities linked to his own characteristics, even when they may appear unwelcome. Confrontation is always present but it is especially so in the first phase of counseling.
B- Focusing
In the second phase of counseling, we move from exploration to highlighting the aspects that are useful for the development of the person; after having opened the communicational field, the counselor must bring back a multitude of elements inside some main conceptual emotional containers, functional to the development project built together with the person.
C- Influencing
In the final stages, the assumption of responsibility to change certain patterns or behavioral sets is supported by the dimension of the client’s trust and identification towards the counselor. This is closely related to the influence and leadership that the counselor has been able to gain in the field. This concept is comparable to that of the “therapeutic alliance” present in psychotherapy, but are very important in a long-life learning training. We could consider this last mentioned activity as a bridge between the psychotherapy, counseling and the training.
Conclusions
As shown learning during training is influenced by factors both prior to and during the training itself. As noted previously, specification of these pretraining influences was one of Noe’s (1986) primary contributions. Generally, pretraining influences may be categorized as organizational-level, social- or team-level, or individual- level influences. Examples of organizational-level pretraining influences include perceived organizational support for training and whether training is mandatory or optional. Trainees may be more motivated to attend training when they see it as consistent with organizational goals, supported by top management, and required of all members.
The conclusion of each reflection is a delicate and important process because it helps to define the meaning of what has been said and also the quality of the transfer of insights into the experiential context. This happens for every “narrative” that contains conceptual and metaphorical elements that try to understand parts of reality. In this article, the existence of an application discipline that is not easy to systematize, such as counseling, and its possible use in training has been taken into account. The context in which the contribution is inserted has guided the reflection on objectives, methods and tools rather than on the examination of methodological problems, which are also rich and interesting. Counseling is described in its essence as a dual helping relationship that is born in the social practice of the last century, it is enriched by the contributions of pedagogy and psychology developing in various application directions. The organizations were, for the the very nature of counseling, an elective field of application. In particular counseling it has been used by organizations as a help service for specific issues of hardship through the Employee Assistance Programs, in the Anglo-Saxon world. On the other hand, the evolution of socio-economic conditions has led to a rapid evolution of new organizational models that have required a more active involvement of human resources. These organizational changes began in the 1960s, favoring an evolution of training towards new paradigms. In the structural evolutionary tension of new organizations (learning organizations) there is the need to favor behaviors of active application of knowledge. Training and counseling meet in the growing interest of training for managerial behavior, for work groups, for leadership. Counseling has a competence in facilitating the relationship of great interest for a training that seeks to increase relationality in the traditional teacher / student paradigm. When training evolves from a focus on the teacher to a focus on the participant, individualized training methods begin to appear even outside the traditional context of the classroom group. In this, counseling can make its particular vocation in the management of the dual relationship available to training.
Within the article, an attempt was made to understand the mutual exchange between counseling and training by describing the training action in terms of objectives, methods and tools. The goal was therefore to systematize the meeting between the dimensions of help and learning within the coordinates of the training method, to offer a reference framework for the operational hybridization that sometimes follows new applications.
We can believe that organizational counselling is a form of accompanying and supporting people in their organizational development. From this point of view, organizational counselling has a double value. On the one hand, it can be considered as a form of development aid for the person who seeks to harmonize individual emotional-cognitive characteristics with the needs of the organization. In this sense, it represents a form of supervision aimed toward an active and motivational adaptation in the work environment.
On the other hand, workplace counseling is more inspired, compared to individual counseling, by the pedagogy of origins which is the basis of its foundation as evidenced by the contributions of Dewey (1916) and Parson (1914) which are considered at the basis of his birth and his first application in educational institutions occurred in the early twentieth century.
This implies favoring a tendency to learn from experience and a self-awareness of one’s abilities as a function not so much of care as occurs in psychological counseling based on Rogersian matrix (Rogers, 1942) as in a functioning of adaptation to the environment.
When we talk about adaptation to the environment, Psychology and Pedagogy become parallel paths with comparable purposes, as Freud (1925) himself said introducing in the book the pedagogist Aichhorn on the young people problems in the beginning of the last century.
Finally if we consider also that a person who enters the placework and lives in one or more organizations pursuing a career, lives a condition of learning and growth throughout the life span. Life Long Learning is therefore harmonious with organizations and organizational counseling.
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Author:
Gianluca Biggio
Psychologist,
Psychoanalytic Psychotherapist (SIPP, Italian Society odf Psychoanalytic Psychoterpy)
Member of EFPP (European Federation for Psychoanalytic Psychotherapy)
Professor of Organizational Psychology and Communication in “Tuscia” University of Viterbo, Italy
Member of European Association of Work and Organizational Psychology (EAWOP)
Organizational Counsellor